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Most Western countries have a high degree of industrialization and modernization which results in a lot of prosperity. This prosperity, in turn, results in a community in which all citizens can be seen as 'not poor'. This trivial fact is not something which can be seen as a miracle or a natural phenomenon, but as a supervene of planning. In turn, the community as a whole must be organized in such a way that guarantees can be given to its citizens for their individual well-being. This egalitarian principle in Western countries is conceptualized in the term 'welfare state'. It is not the intention of this narrative to provide a historical catalogue of the emergence of the welfare state, but the main goal is to discuss an foremost catalytic factor in the emergence of the welfare state: public planning.
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Social planning is not synonymous to governmental planning because it is a broad term which is relevant for numerous kinds of planning. Roughly every form of planning, either it is instruction planning, health planning, company planning or science planning, all have clear and definite public characteristics. For this reason, a public planner can have distinct scholastic backgrounds: sociologist, economist, company administration, public administration, etc. What is public planning? Planning can be seen as a process in which a definite whole of steps in time are undertaken which will supervene in a strategy valuable to cope with a confident problem. Take, for instance, a housewife who wants to cook her family a nice dinner. She will first rule what sort of meal she will prepare. She will make a list of the valuable ingredients and she will go to the nearest supermarket and buy these ingredients. Back home she will cook the meal which will be ready colse to evening meal time. Her family can enjoy a warm home cooked meal made with fresh ingredients. This is all the supervene of planning albeit a easy form of planning. Unfortunately, the public reality in which we live in is a lot more complicated and confusing. So, to solve all those complicated problems, the planner has developed numerous techniques and methods of planning. In general, all planners tend to agree that there are two kinds of planning. The first type of planning is called titanic planning. This form of planning is linked with extremely specialized planning in a confident sector or area. For instance instruction planning, spatial planning, company planning, etc. Are forms of titanic planning. The second type of planning is procedural planning. This type of planning is implicated with general characteristics of the planning process. The central question of this form of planning is: how can I shape a planning process? This narrative is about the latter form of planning rather than a specialized formula of application of planning. A logical consequence of procedural planning is that planning must be seen as a process. And this process is a process of analysis, anticipation, design, action, and application. Planning as a 'learning process' Planning is not an action which can be seen as a process which is uncontroversial. The science of planning is still growing and the belief of planning is numerous. Every planner has his own way of seeing at planning and this has resulted in a 'jungle' of planning definitions and concepts. Fortunately, this fact has given a strong impulse to the growth of the science of planning. In the beginning, planning was solely a technical and market engagement. But recently planners realized that planning should be seen as a public activity. For this reason, sociologists developed a strong interest in the systematic diagnosis of planning. A valuable consequence of this arrival of planning is that the learning aspects of planning have been recognized. So, the belief of planning as a 'learning process' can be seen as the most recent arrival of planning. This form of planning has integrated confident aspects from the law theories, cybernetics, and the communication and public theories. A major characteristic of the law theories is that the public reality is seen as a law which consists of subsystems. If we know that the reality consists of subsystems, then it is inherent to make models. Models categorically mirror the reality which consists of subsystems. Take, for instance, a mouse who is trying to fly from the claws of a cat. The mouse itself has a dynamic system; it is inherent for the mouse to constantly change its system. In order to fly from the cat, the mouse can run into various directions which, in turn, depend on its sight, smell, and hearing capacities. So, the mouse possesses a dynamic system. For planning, however, a dynamic law is not sufficient because the public reality is also changing constantly. The consequence of the changing public reality is that our diagnosis of the situation is categorically outdated and irrelevant. There are two strategies to cope with this problem: using forecasting techniques which can be incorporated in the planning process and/or the incorporation of feedback mechanisms in the planning process. The latter strategy is categorically an aspect which has been derived from cybernetics. So, it can be stated that planning is a learning process since new ideas, changes in the reality, and contact are all incorporated in the planning law by feed-back mechanisms. It is categorically facts (the learning aspects of planning) which is incorporated in the planning process; without facts we cannot function properly. There is one final aspect which must be incorporated in the planning system: participation. It is categorically an aspect of the communication and public theories. Planning is normally not an individualistic activity, especially when the qoute to be solved is complicated and when a lot of citizen are involved. So, participation of others in the planning process is very foremost since it is valuable to make a good and flourishing plan rather than an unrealistic plan. Planning as a decision-making process In most cases, planning is extremely linked to decision making. Decisions are constantly being made in reality without any difficulties at all. Decisions can be made by easy intuitions, but it can also be made by a deeper diagnosis of a problem. An example of an intuitive decision: which hand do I use writing a paper or what is the best position for me to get into sleep in bed at night, etc. This kind of decision manufacture happens automatically; there is no need for a deeper analysis. The planner, however, is not a man who believes that all his problems can be solved with intuitions. If this is the case, a risky situation might arise for the planner himself or for the citizen who are affected by his plans. A sensible public planner realizes that the public reality is a complicated reality. For this reason, the public planner will base his plans on rational analysis. It must be mentioned that a public planner is also a human being who is not perfect. Planning is about decision making. In turn, decision manufacture is based on analysis; this means that a confident part of the reality must be subdivided into a confident whole of parts. These parts can be analyzed which means that all the consequences of all the problem-solving alternatives must be screened. However, it is impossible to make a unblemished diagnosis of the entire reality which is too complicated in nature. Usually, there is not sufficient time, money, and intellectual capabilities to solve a public qoute in a total manner. This does not mean that that an incomplete diagnosis is useless because it will elaborate the qoute a lot more and there is no doubt about the usefulness of an incomplete analysis. In order to elaborate this, an illustration can be given. Fantasize there are two alternative plans ready and it is categorically valuable that one option is chosen. In addition, it is known that the results of plan A are less satisfying than the results of plan B. The chances that plan B will supervene is only 40%. But it is also known that in case plan B is successful, then the results at the end is much good than the results of plan A. Which plan do you have to choose? The following calculations will provide more clarity. Suppose the success of plan B will be given the value of 1 and the failure of plan A will be given the value 0. In case plan A succeeds, a value of 0.7 can be given, but if plan B fails, a value of 0.2 can be given. The imaginable value for selecting plan A can now be calculated: (0.8 x 0.7) + (0.2 x 0.0) = 0.56 For selecting plan B, the calculation is: (0.4 x 1.0) + (0.6 x 0.2) + 0.52 So, in this case plan A should be the confident choice. Planning, forecasting, and policy making It was already mentioned that the process of planning includes anticipation. This process of prospect or forecasting is categorically the process of predicting the future. Planning and forecasting cannot be separated from each other, but cannot be separated from the process of policy making. The process of policy manufacture can be defined as the hunt for confident means in order to reach an approved goal in the future. In other words, problems we have today must be eliminated in the hereafter and it is our task to find means to accomplish this goal. Planning in this case must be seen as a supporting factor of policy manufacture consisting of the following processes: preparation, consideration, decision, execution, evaluation, and feedback. The relationship in the middle of planning, forecasting, and policy manufacture is useful because governments, politicians and policy makers need all these instruments.
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